Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) on haemodialysis (HD). The increased risks of cardiovascular events and mortality in dialysis patients is partly related to an increased prevalence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors, including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, physical inactivity, smoking and dyslipidaemia. However, these factors account for less than 50% of the excess risk of cardiovascular disease, leading many researchers to explore the roles of non-traditional risk factors, including anaemia, chronic inflammation, hyperhomocysteinaemia and uraemic toxins. Arterial stiffening is another major contributor to the heightened cardiovascular risk in ESRD, causing hemodynamic alterations via multiple pathways.Muscle wasting, abnormalities in muscle function, and effects on exercise performance are common in patients with ESRD. Exercise is one of the possible preventive maneuvers to reduce muscle protein loss and maintain muscle function. Therefore, various exercise programs, such as aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, combined aerobic and resistance exercise and passive exercise including electrical stimulation have been developed for hemodialysis patients.